Hawaiian Birds and ‘Apapane Conservation
The ‘Apapane lives primarily in mesic and wet native forests dominated by ohi‘a. Their range is limited mostly to elevations above 4,000 feet due to disease-carrying mosquitoes that are restricted to lower elevations because of cold intolerance.
Loss and modification of habitat by humans and the introduction of alien species to Hawai‘i have greatly reduced numbers and distribution of ‘Apapane (Himatione sanguinea) and other endemic birds. Common birds in same forest habitat include ‘I‘iwi, ‘Amakihi, ‘Elepaio, ‘Oma‘o, ‘Alauahio, ‘Akikiki, and ‘Anianiau.
The primary conservation strategy for endemic Hawaiian forest birds is protection and restoration of native forests at higher elevations. Refuges, parks, and reserves have been established by federal and state agencies, and by private conservation organizations. Many conservation areas are fenced to exclude or control feral ungulates, such as feral pigs, to help reduce avian disease transmission. They also help to exclude feral goats, feral sheep, and black-tailed deer from over-browsing and seriously degrading many mesic and wet forests in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Photo by Jack Jeffrey.
Hawaiian Birds and Hawaiian Crow
The Hawaiian Crow (ʻAlala) was endemic to Hawaii, but is now extinct in the wild. Even though this species was once relatively common, it was not studied until the late 1900s, so we will never know how they lived and behaved when they occurred in their full numbers. Fossil evidence suggests the ‘Alala once occurred all the major islands, but it has only been researched on the Big Island.
It is primarily a forest and woodland bird most recently inhabiting dry and mesic forests on the slopes of Mauna Loa and Hualalai Volcanoes at elevations of 1,000 to 8,000 feet. The ʻAlala (Corvus hawaiiensis) has soft, brownish-black plumage, bristly throat feathers, and its feet, legs, and bill are black. It is the largest and one of the most charismatic, culturally significant Hawaiian forest birds. Native Hawaiians regarded the ‘Alala highly and consider it a family god (ʻaumakua), and used its feathers ceremonially.
Its omnivorous diet is dominated by invertebrates, fruit, eggs, nestlings, and a limited amount of nectar and plant parts. They will pry bark off trees and eat the insects found underneath. ʻOhiʻa lehua and koa are important tree species in its habitat providing extensive understory cover to protect it from predation by the Hawaiian Hawk (‘Io). The ʻAlala has a call described as a two-toned caw, or as a screech with lower tones added.
The ‘Alala is notable for its precipitous decline in range and numbers, largely frugivorous diet, and remarkable vocal repertoire. Widespread alteration and destruction of habitat, reduction of food resources, and introduced diseases and predators ultimately led to the decline of the species. In 2002, the last wild pair occupied less than 20 square kilometers of habitat on the western slope of Mauna Loa. The ‘Alala cannot be recovered without dramatically improving habitat conditions and captive propagation, and major efforts and resources are being devoted to its recovery.
Hawaii Endangered Bird Conservation Program
The Hawaii Endangered Bird Conservation Program aims to use captive propagation and release techniques to re-establish populations of critically endangered birds. This program is a unique collaboration between the San Diego Zoo, government agencies, and private landowners, with captive breeding facilities at the Keauhou and Maui Bird Conservation Centers.
Hawaiian birds have exhibited a staggering array of adaptations to their unique habitats resulting in species that are found nowhere else on the planet. Before the arrival of humans, endemic birds were abundant from mountain forests to rain forests by the sea. Unfortunately, of the more than 140 native species and subspecies that were present prior to humans, more than half have been lost to extinction. Among the remaining endemic birds, thirty are federally listed as endangered, and fifteen of these are literally on the brink of extinction, numbering fewer than 500 individuals.
The Hawaiian Crow (‘Alala) has not been seen in the wild since 2002, and the entire known population exists of around seventy-five birds managed at these two locations. Their goal is to increase the captive population and eventually re-establish the population in wild, protected habitat. Unlike many other bird species that have become extinct in Hawaii, this safety net represents a significant step toward the prevention of its extinction.
Three other critically endangered species being focused on are the Puaiohi, Maui Parrotbill, and Palila. Since 1999, more than three hundred Puaiohi have been hatched and two hundred released back into the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve on the island of Kauai. During this time, the wild population estimate for puaiohi has doubled to approximately 500 birds. Successful trial releases of the Palila have been undertaken on the northern slopes of Mauna Kea, giving great hopes for future population recovery. Additionally, more than 400 Nene from the two facilities have been released throughout the Hawaiian islands.
Hawaiian Birds and Elepaio Breeding
Male and female ‘Elepaio on Kauai are most common in Koke‘e State Park, and remain together in their territory throughout year. Males and females are sexually mature and capable of breeding in their second year, but rarely are able to obtain a territory or mate until their third or fourth year. In the meantime, they act as floaters, moving and foraging inconspicuously over several territories, until they can acquire their own by filling a vacancy caused by the mortality of its owner.
Courtship begins a few weeks before nest construction, consisting of singing and chasing. Both sexes are active in all phases of nest construction lasting around seven to fourteen days from March to May. The nest is usually composed of fine grasses, rootlets, thin strips of bark, leaf skeletons, and camouflaged with lichen, moss, liverwort, or tree fern hair.
Clutches are usually two eggs and appear from April to June. The male and female alternate incubation for a period of eighteen days, and share in feeding their chicks insects, spiders, beetle, millipedes, flies, moth caterpillars, and slugs. After a period of 16 days, fledglings remain near the nest for the first few days, while the parents bring them food. After several days, fledglings follow parents more closely, and then begin to forage on their own after about three weeks.
When males reach approximately ten months old, they begin singing their primary song – a squeaky, whistled el-e-pai-o, from which the Hawaiians derived the name. Females often answer male song with loud, two-note call. Both males and females give a variety of calls, soft chups to maintain contact, and rapid, persistent chit-chits to scold intruders. Photo by Jack Jeffrey.
Hear the ‘Elepaio (produced by SoundsHawaiian)
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Hawaiian Birds and Elepaio
The ‘Elepaio is a small flycatcher found only on the Hawaiian islands of Hawaii, Oahu, and Kauai. Like many Hawaiian birds that have shown adaptation to their surroundings, research has shown that ‘Elepaio on each island differ morphologically, genetically, and behaviorally. In 2009 it was recommended that they be split into 3 species – Chasiempis sandwichensis on Hawaii, Chasiempis ibidis on Oahu, and Chasiempis sclateri on Kauai.
‘Elepaio are adaptable and occupy a variety of forested habitats, from dense rain forest to dry, open woodland. On Kaua‘i they are most common in dense, wet ohi‘a forest above 3,600 feet on Alaka‘i Plateau and in Koke‘e State Park. Bold and inquisitive, especially on Kaua‘i, they often investigate and even follow hikers, holding their tail cocked up in a curious posture. They were important in the mythology of the Hawaiian people, and was considered the guardian spirit of Hawaiian canoe makers.
They differ among islands in plumage coloration and vocalizations, but all exhibit a two year delay in plumage maturation in both sexes. This small monarch flycatcher is brown or grey, with a long tail, often held up at an angle. The adults on all islands have conspicuous white wing-bars, rump, and tail-tips. ‘Elepaio are active, agile, and versatile in pursuit of insects and spiders, using a variety of ways to search for and capture prey in the forest, including vertical trunks, branches, leaves, through the air, and on the ground. In flight, they are capable of rapid flight and quick changes in direction to capture prey, but also descend to the ground and hop and creep among roots and hollow logs.
Males are aggressive in defense of their territory (especially during breeding season), which involves rapid, acrobatic chasing through the forest, occasionally leading to physical, midair, face-to-face grappling with feet and pecking with bill. This is usually followed by a threat display – standing upright with head held up, feathers on crown and throat erected, tail cocked, and a series of loud calls. Fledglings are allowed in their natal territory for up to 10 months, then are chased away by parents at onset of new breeding season.
Hawaiian Birds – Hawaiian Coot Conservation
Hunting Hawaiian Coots has been prohibited since 1939 and the species was federally listed as Endangered in 1970. The Endangered Species Act has helped protect the Hawaiian Coot (Fulica alai) and made it possible to learn critical information about its biology. Measures have also been taken to protect threatened wetland habitat with the creation of sanctuaries and refuges. On Kauai, the Hule’ia NWR Refuge, Hanalei NWR, and Kawai‘ele Sanctuary support many Hawaiian Coots. The Kealia Pond NWR on Maui protects an important concentration of the species, as does the James Campbell NWR on Oahu, Kaloko-Honoköhau National Historical Park (site of ‘Aimakapa Pond) on Hawai‘i, and the Kakahai NWR on Molokai.
U.S. National Wildlife Refuges in Hawaii provide essential habitat and control for the Hawaiian Coot. Control of introduced predators is an important management tool to increase nest success of Hawaiian Coots and other birds. Predation by feral cats, dogs, introduced mongoose, and sometimes the Black-crowned Night-Herons can be serious predators on young coots.
At a facility on Maui a few Hawaiian Coots would occasionally visit and attempt to build nests in their ponds, however the nesting material would blow away and the birds would leave. The facility’s operator searched the Internet for information on the species and discovered its preference for nests on mats of floating vegetation. While at the local landfill, he spotted a dilapidated bodyboard and surmised it would work well as a nesting island for the birds. He tied a rope to the board, secured an anchor, attached grass roots to the top of the board, and placed it in the pond. The board was immediately requisitioned by a pair of Hawaiian Coots and it wasn’t long before the facility hatched its first chicks. Since then, the conservation of Hawaiian Coots has been incorporated into the facility’s operations management plan. Photo by G. Armistead.
